From the cultural evolutionary perspective, social organization is subject to random variation. People just "try different things" -- try different strategies. This happens at a roughly constant frequency over all time. All (technologically possible) variations are equally probable. Nothing benignly guides people toward trying "the right things".
Variations in social structure (produced randomly) are subjected to environmental selection, i. e. they are "tested" against the natural (and possibly as well the larger social) environment in which people find themselves. Some variations fare "better" than others in specific environments. `Better' here simply means that people employing the "better" or "more successful" variation have a greater chance of passing that variation on to other people than do people using "less successful" variations.
More successful variations thus (by definition) are those that "catch on" and are used by increasing numbers of people. For variations to really make a difference (and to be noticed in the archaeological / historical record), they must be transmitted from older people to younger people. That is, there must be some mechanism for generational transmission -- transmitting successful, randomly generated variation across generations.
Thus, the cultural evolutionary perspective explains changes in social organization over time from organization type A to organization type B in environment E in the following way.
B originated by random variation, proved to be more successful than A when tested against the environment E and was transmitted to successive generations.On our view, the cultural evolutionary perspective is an empirical theory -- one which will be elaborated with somewhat more detail and precision as the course develops. The material of this course is presented as evidence that may either confirm or disconfirm this theory. In fact, most of the examples we will look at turn out to be somewhat inconclusive. Nevertheless, the cultural evolutionary perspective provides and integrating analytical framework for organizing the material in the course.
The controversial issues of when and how people first arrived in the Americas, what they did when they got here and the role of environmental conditions -- principally, changes in glaciation -- in these events are considered first (WK2) focusing on putative early occupations at Pendejo Cave (near El Paso, TX), Pedra Furada (Brazil) Meadowcroft (near Pittsburgh, PA) and Monte Verde (Chile).
Next, the final retreat of Pleistocene glaciation (12000 -11000 ybp [years before present]) and the earliest universally accepted evidence of human presence in the Americas (the Clovis Culture) are discussed focusing on the Onion Portage (AK), Clovis (near Carlsbad, NM) and Dent (near Dent, CO) sites. Some attention is given to the possible role of Clovis hunting technologies in the extinction of Pleistocene mega-fauna (WK3 SE1). The topics presented up to this point and somewhat beyond will be illustrated by materials in the Denver Museum of Natural History.
This field trip (WK3 SE2), will depart at 9:00 and return to campus about 12:00, thus extending beyond the normal class period. You are notified of this well in advance so that you may make appropriate arrangements.
Finally, the adaptation of the Folsom Culture and other successors to the Clovis to changing environmental conditions associated with glacial retreat and the extinction of mega-fauna (11000-7000 ybp) is discussed (WK 4 SE1). Here we focus on the Lindenmeir (near Ft. Collins, CO) and Olsen-Chubbuck (near Kit Carson, CO) sites.
The changes in social organization accompanying this transition are discussed and interpreted from the cultural evolutionary perspective (WK6 SE1). In the course of this discussion, four parameters for characterizing social organization: scale, integration, complexity and boundedness are characterized. These parameters provide a conceptual basis for further analysis of social change in the remainder of the course.
A roughly similar development trajectory characterizes all three regions we will examine (and the rest of Mesoamerica, as well). Beginning about 3500 ypb increasing populations supported by more intense agriculture accompany increasing social complexity. This Formative Period (so called because it forms the basis for subsequent cultural development) or Preclassic Period culminates about 2100-1900 ypb with the emergence state level social organization. These states persist through what is frequently called the Classic Period until about 1300-1100 ybp. At about this time complex societies throughout Mesoamerica undergo significant structural change loosely (and somewhat misleadingly) termed "collapse". The restructured socio-economic system persists until until European contact (480-440 ybp) comprising what is frequently called the Postclassic Period.
Most of the analytical effort in this course will be focused on examining alternative explanations (from a cultural evolutionary perspective) for features of this trajectory viewed at a somewhat higher resolution in each of the three areas we consider.
Marked increase rate of population growth, the use of irrigation in agriculture, the beginnings of urban concentration Monte Albán, and the emergence of state level social complexity characterize the Monte Albán I period (2500-2200 ybp) (WK7 SE1). These developments continue through the Monte Albán II and III periods (2200-1250 ybp) accompanied by increased trade (mostly in luxury goods), economic specialization (WK8). In connection with these developments, some attention will be give to technological / scientific developments in writing, mathematics and calendars in the expanded context of Mesoamerica as a whole.
On Saturday of WK8 there will be an optional, field trip visiting the Lindenmier and Dent sites near Greeley, CO. This trip will depart campus at 9:00 and retrun about 17:00.
The pan-Mesoamerican restructuring manifests itself in the Valley of Oaxaca by short-lived population decline, break up of the socio-economic system centered at Monte Albán and the development of dispersed smaller centers at locations such as Zaachila and Mitla during the final periods (Monte Albán IV and V (1250-480 ybp) before European contact in the Valley of Oaxaca. In the course of discussing cultural evolutionary explanations for this collapse, some general features of agriculture in the Mesoamerican highlands will be considered (WK9 SE1). Some discussion of the appearance of metallurgical technology in Mesoamerica will be provided at this point.
Classic (2000-1250 ybp) (WK10 SE1) and Early Post Classic (1250-800 ybp) (WK10 SE2) Period societies (focusing respectively on the sites Teotihuac´n and Tula)are discussed in connection with mining and obsidian processing and ceramic technologies which apparently played a significant economic role in both. The role of anthropogenic environmental change (putatively, deforestation) in the Classic to Post-Classic restructuring will be examined.
The economic structure of the Aztec Empire centered at Tenochtitlán (the site of present day Mexico City) -- chinampa agriculture, trade, tribute, transportation, warfare -- provide focus for the discussion of the Late Post Classic (Aztec) Period (800-480 ybp)(WK11).
A field trip to view the Pre-columbian collection at the Denver Art Mseum (WK12 SE2), will depart at 9:00 and return to campus about 12:00, thus extending beyond the normal class period. You are notified of this well in advance so that you may make appropriate arrangements.
In parallel to the preceding discussions of the Valleys of Oaxaca and Mexico, the "collapse" of complex societies in the Eastern Lowlands (focusing on Palenque and Tikal) is considered from a cultural evolutionary perspective. Climate change, deforestation, overpopulation are among the causal factors examined (WK13 SE1). Postclassic (1100-460 ybp) Maya society is discussed focusing on the examples of Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, Mayapán and Tullum.
The final week of the course is devoted to student presentations on selected topics.
